Muhammad bin Tughlaq

 

Muhammad bin Tughlaq: Notes with Focus on Unsuccessful Ventures

Muhammad bin Tughlaq was a famous ruler of the Delhi Sultanate who ruled from 1325 to 1351. He was the son of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty. Born around 1290, Muhammad was very smart and well-educated. He knew many languages like Arabic, Persian, and even some Indian ones. He loved reading books on science, math, religion, and how to rule a kingdom. People called him a genius because he had big ideas to make his empire better. At one point, his kingdom was the biggest in India, stretching from the north to the south. He wanted to be a fair and strong king, like the old Persian rulers. But many of his plans failed badly, causing rebellions, deaths, and loss of money. Historians say he was full of contradictions – sometimes kind, sometimes cruel. He was a strict Muslim but tolerant of Hindus. His reign started well with conquests and wealth, but his experiments made him unpopular. He died in 1351 while on a campaign, leaving the kingdom weaker. In these notes, I will highlight his main unsuccessful things, as they show why his rule is remembered more for failures than successes. These include the Qarachil Expedition, increasing taxes in the Doab area, shifting the capital, token currency, taccavi loans, and his last unsuccessful expedition where he fell ill with bubonic plague.

1. Qarachil Expedition: A Disastrous Mountain Campaign

One of Muhammad bin Tughlaq's biggest failures was the Qarachil Expedition in 1333. Qarachil was a hilly area in the Himalayas, probably in the Kumaon region of modern Uttarakhand or the Kullu-Kangra area in Himachal Pradesh. Muhammad wanted to conquer it for a few reasons. First, he thought it would help control trade routes for horses coming from Central Asia. Second, there were rumors of Chinese attacks or influence in those hills, so he wanted to stop that. Third, he dreamed of expanding his empire to far places, like the old kings.

Muhammad sent a huge army of about 100,000 soldiers to attack. The soldiers were excited at first because he promised them good pay and loot. But the expedition turned into a nightmare. The hills were steep and full of forests. The paths were narrow, and heavy rains made them slippery. The army got stuck in bad weather – cold, fog, and storms. Local tribes fought back with arrows and traps. Many soldiers fell into rivers or got lost. Then, diseases spread in the camp. Some historians say a plague-like illness killed thousands.

The army couldn't win any big battles. Most soldiers died from hunger, cold, or fighting. Only a few came back to Delhi. It was a total loss – no land gained, and the treasury spent a lot on supplies and pay. People in Delhi heard horror stories from survivors, making them angry at the Sultan. This failure showed Muhammad's poor planning. He didn't know the area well and ignored warnings about the tough terrain. It weakened his army and made nobles doubt his decisions. The Qarachil Expedition is often called one of his "mad schemes" because it cost so many lives for nothing.

After this, Muhammad tried to hide the failure by punishing officers, but it hurt his reputation. It also encouraged rebellions in other parts because the army was smaller now. This expedition highlights how his ambition led to disaster without good advice or preparation.

2. Increasing Taxes in the Doab Area: Leading to Famine and Revolt

Another major failure was Muhammad's decision to increase taxes in the Doab region around 1334-1335. The Doab is the fertile land between the Ganga and Yamuna rivers, in modern Uttar Pradesh. It was the heart of the Sultanate, producing a lot of food like wheat and rice. Muhammad needed more money for his big army and other plans, like paying soldiers and building things.

He raised the land tax to 50% of the crop, which was double the usual rate. He also added new taxes, like on houses and cattle grazing. Farmers had to pay in cash, not in grains, which was hard because money was scarce in villages. To collect these taxes, he sent strict officers who measured land and punished anyone who didn't pay. But at the same time, there was a bad famine in Doab due to no rain. Crops failed, and people starved.

Instead of helping, Muhammad's officers forced farmers to pay anyway. Many farmers left their lands and ran to forests or other places. Villages became empty, and food production dropped more. This caused even bigger hunger. Angry farmers rebelled, attacking tax collectors. Muhammad sent his army to crush them. Soldiers burned villages, killed people, and took their animals. It was very cruel – some areas turned into deserts.

The tax increase failed completely. Instead of more money, the treasury got less because farms were abandoned. The famine killed thousands, and rebellions spread to other parts like Gujarat and Bengal. Muhammad later realized his mistake. He reduced taxes and gave some help, like digging wells for water. But the damage was done. People called him a tyrant for this. Historians say this policy showed his lack of understanding of farming and weather. He ignored warnings from advisors and focused only on quick money. The Doab took years to recover, and it weakened the Sultanate's economy.

This failure also made Muhammad paranoid. He thought everyone was against him, so he increased spies and punishments. It was a turning point where his rule started falling apart.

3. Shifting of Capital: From Delhi to Daulatabad

Muhammad's most famous failure was shifting the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad in 1327. Daulatabad, earlier called Devagiri, was in Maharashtra, about 1500 km south of Delhi. Muhammad had many reasons for this. Delhi was too close to Mongol attacks from the north. Daulatabad was in the center of his big empire, easier to control the south where he had conquered new lands. It was a strong fort on a hill, safe from enemies. He also wanted to make the kingdom more united by mixing people from north and south.

But the way he did it was wrong. He ordered everyone in Delhi – rich, poor, officials, traders, even sick people and scholars – to move to Daulatabad. The whole city had to pack up and go. He provided carts, food, and guards, but the journey was terrible. It took months through hot plains, forests, and rivers. Many died from heat, diseases like malaria, snake bites, and hunger. Old people and children suffered the most. Delhi became a ghost town, with empty houses and markets.

In Daulatabad, there weren't enough homes, water, or food for so many new people. The climate was different – hotter and drier. People from north missed their homes and families. Scholars and artists complained because the new place had no big libraries or mosques like Delhi. After two years, rebellions started because people hated the move. Muhammad saw the mistake and allowed some to return in 1329, but many had already died.

This shift cost a lot of money – for travel, building new palaces, and lost trade in Delhi. It weakened the army because soldiers were busy moving instead of fighting. Mongols attacked the empty north borders. The policy failed to unite the empire; instead, it caused hate against the Sultan. Historians say Muhammad didn't think about people's feelings or practical issues like water supply. He forced it too fast without testing. This "mad scheme" made him look cruel and foolish, losing support from nobles and common folk.

4. Token Currency: A Failed Money Experiment

In 1329, Muhammad introduced token currency, another big failure. He wanted to save gold and silver, which were scarce, by making cheap copper coins equal to silver ones. He got the idea from China, where paper money worked. The new coins looked like silver tankas but were made of brass or copper. People could exchange them at the same value.

At first, it seemed good. The government minted lots of coins, and trade might increase with more money. But soon, problems came. People started making fake coins at home because copper was easy to get and copy. Forgers became rich, and real money lost value. Prices of everything shot up – inflation happened. Traders refused the new coins, and economy stopped. Farmers couldn't sell crops, and soldiers' pay became worthless.

Muhammad tried to fix it by punishing forgers – he executed many – but it was too late. In 1333, he stopped the system and asked people to exchange fake coins for real ones. The treasury lost huge amounts buying back fakes. Piles of useless coins were left outside the fort.

This failure emptied the treasury and caused economic chaos. People suffered from high prices and lost trust in the Sultan. It showed Muhammad's haste – he didn't make coins hard to copy or explain it well. Historians call it a "disastrous experiment" that weakened the kingdom.

5. Taccavi Loans: Agricultural Reforms That Didn't Work

Muhammad tried to improve farming with taccavi loans around 1330-1332. Taccavi means advance loans given to farmers for seeds, tools, or digging wells. He created a new department called Diwan-i-Kohi (agriculture office) with 100 officials. The goal was to grow more food, especially in empty lands around Delhi. He chose 100 villages and gave loans to poor farmers to plant better crops like wheat, grapes, and sugarcane. He spent about 70 lakh tankas on this.

The idea was good – help farmers during bad times and increase taxes later. But it failed for many reasons. First, corruption: Officials stole the money instead of giving it to farmers. Second, wrong land choice: Some areas had bad soil or no water. Third, no training: Farmers didn't know new methods. Fourth, monsoon failure: Rains didn't come, so crops died. Fifth, force: Officials made farmers take loans and work, causing resentment.

After three years, the scheme collapsed. Most loans weren't repaid, and lands stayed barren. Muhammad punished officials, but the money was lost. This failure added to economic problems, as the treasury suffered again. It showed his lack of practical knowledge about farming and poor management. Taccavi loans became another example of his failed dreams.

6. Unsuccessful Expedition and Death from Bubonic Plague

Muhammad's last big failure was the expedition to Sindh in 1351, where he fell ill and died from what many believe was bubonic plague. By 1350, the kingdom was full of rebellions. In Sindh (modern Pakistan), local chiefs and tribes like the Sumras and Jats revolted against high taxes and harsh rule. Muhammad, now old and sick, decided to lead the army himself to crush them. He marched from Delhi to Thatta near the Indus River with a large force.

The expedition was unsuccessful from the start. The desert heat and lack of water tired the soldiers. Rebels used guerrilla tactics, attacking supplies and running away. Then, a deadly disease broke out in the camp. Historians like Ibn Battuta, who was with Muhammad earlier, described it as plague. Symptoms included fever, swellings, and quick death. It was likely bubonic plague, spread by fleas from rats. The plague killed many soldiers and officers. Muhammad himself got sick with high fever.

He retreated but died on March 20, 1351, near Thatta at age 61. His body was taken back to Delhi for burial. The expedition failed to stop the rebellion; Sindh became independent soon after. This last failure showed how weak the Sultanate had become. The plague outbreak was a final blow, killing thousands and ending his rule tragically.

The disease might have come from Central Asia or local areas, as plagues were common then. Some sources say it started in Bidar during a southern trip, but the Sindh expedition is where it killed him. This event marked the end of his ambitious but troubled reign.

Overall Impact of These Failures

Muhammad bin Tughlaq's unsuccessful ventures damaged the Delhi Sultanate badly. The Qarachil Expedition lost a whole army, weakening defense. Tax increases in Doab caused famines and empty villages, hurting food supply. Shifting the capital killed thousands and wasted money, making people hate him. Token currency ruined the economy with fake money and inflation. Taccavi loans failed due to corruption, losing more treasury funds. His last expedition and plague death led to chaos, with many parts of the empire breaking away.

These failures caused over 20 rebellions. The south formed new kingdoms like Vijayanagar and Bahmani. The Sultanate shrank, and people suffered poverty and death. Muhammad's good ideas – like unity, better money, and farming help – failed because of poor planning, no advice, and force. He was too impatient and ignored reality.

After his death, his cousin Firuz Shah Tughlaq became Sultan and fixed some problems by being kinder. Muhammad is remembered as a tragic figure – smart but flawed. His story teaches that leaders need patience and people's support. Despite failures, he made the Sultanate culturally rich with scholars and buildings. Today, he is a lesson in history books about ambition gone wrong.