Question: The Bhakti Movement
Answer:
Introduction
to the Bhakti Movement
The Bhakti Movement, emerging in
medieval India roughly between the 7th and 17th centuries, represented a
profound spiritual and social revolution. It emphasized personal devotion
(bhakti) to a chosen deity, transcending ritualistic Brahmanism and orthodox
Islam. Rooted in ancient texts like the Bhagavad Gita, it gained momentum in
South India before spreading north, influencing Hinduism's evolution and
fostering religious harmony. Bhakti saints, often from lower castes, preached
equality, love, and direct communion with God, challenging social hierarchies
and promoting vernacular languages. This movement bridged regional divides,
blending with Sufism to create a syncretic culture. It peaked during the Delhi
Sultanate and Mughal eras, impacting literature, music, and society, and laying
foundations for modern Indian spirituality. Key figures like Ramanuja, Kabir,
and Guru Nanak embodied its egalitarian ethos, making devotion accessible to
all, regardless of caste, gender, or creed.
Origins
and Historical Context
The Bhakti Movement's origins trace
to ancient Vedic traditions, where devotion appeared in Upanishads and epics.
However, its organized form began in Tamil Nadu around the 6th-9th centuries
with Alvars (Vaishnava saints) and Nayanars (Shaiva saints). These poet-saints
composed hymns in Tamil, extolling Vishnu and Shiva, criticizing caste rigidity
and Jain-Buddhist dominance.
In the north, it surged post-12th
century amid Islamic rule, responding to social upheavals like invasions and
feudalism. The Delhi Sultanate's centralized authority and Sufi influx provided
fertile ground; bhakti offered solace to the oppressed. By the 15th century,
under Vijayanagara and Mughal influences, it diversified, incorporating local
folklore and challenging orthodoxy. Economic shifts, like trade growth, enabled
saints' travels, spreading ideas. The movement's anti-ritual stance echoed
Buddhist compassion and Islamic monotheism, evolving as a grassroots reform
against Brahmanical exclusivity.
Key
Philosophical Principles
Bhakti's core philosophy centered on
unconditional love for God, viewing rituals as secondary. It advocated saguna
(with form) or nirguna (formless) devotion; saguna focused on avatars like Rama
or Krishna, while nirguna emphasized an abstract divine, as in Kabir's
teachings.
Equality was paramount: saints
rejected caste, proclaiming all souls equal before God. This democratized
religion, allowing women and Shudras participation. Prampara (guru-disciple
lineage) guided seekers, with surrender (sharanagati) as the path to salvation.
Influences from Tantra added ecstatic elements, like dance and song. Bhakti
integrated karma (action) and jnana (knowledge) yogas, but prioritized emotion.
Texts like Bhagavata Purana inspired narratives of divine love, portraying God
as accessible lover or friend, humanizing spirituality.
Major
Bhakti Traditions: Saguna and Nirguna
The movement split into saguna and
nirguna streams. Saguna bhakti revered deities with attributes: Vaishnavites
worshipped Vishnu's incarnations, Shaivites Shiva. Ramananda's Ram bhakti in
the north popularized Rama as ideal king, influencing Tulsidas' Ramcharitmanas.
Nirguna bhakti, abstract and
monotheistic, dismissed idols, focusing on formless God. Kabir and Nanak
exemplified this, critiquing hypocrisy in Hinduism and Islam. Saguna emphasized
temple worship and festivals, while nirguna favored kirtan (devotional singing)
and introspection. Both promoted social reform, but nirguna was more radical,
appealing to masses disillusioned with organized religion.
Prominent
Bhakti Saints in South India
Southern bhakti pioneered the
movement. Alvars, 12 Vaishnava saints like Andal and Tiruppan Alvar, sang of
Vishnu's love in Prabandham hymns, blending eroticism with devotion. Andal, a
woman saint, symbolized bridal mysticism, merging self with divine.
Nayanars, 63 Shaiva devotees
including Appar and Sambandar, composed Tevaram poems, revitalizing Shaivism
against Jainism. Their hagiographies in Periya Puranam depicted extreme
devotion, like Kannappar offering his eye to Shiva. Ramanuja (11th-12th
century) systematized Vishishtadvaita philosophy, advocating qualified
non-dualism and temple reforms for lower castes. Madhva pushed Dvaita dualism,
emphasizing eternal distinction between soul and God. These saints used Tamil,
making bhakti vernacular and inclusive.
Spread
to North India: Ramananda and Disciples
Ramananda (14th-15th century), a
Ramanuja disciple, bridged south-north by settling in Varanasi and preaching in
Hindi. He discarded caste barriers, accepting disciples like Kabir (weaver), Raidas
(cobbler), and Sena (barber). His emphasis on Ram-nam (chanting Rama's name)
democratized devotion.
Disciples amplified this: Kabir's
dohas (couplets) mocked religious pretensions, blending Hindu-Muslim ideas into
a universal faith. Raidas highlighted humility, his hymns in Guru Granth Sahib
inspiring Dalit movements. Dhanna, a farmer saint, exemplified simple faith.
This Ramanandi tradition fostered sects like Kabirpanthis, promoting social
equality amid Sultanate turbulence.
Kabir
and the Nirguna Tradition
Kabir (1440-1518), a weaver from
Varanasi, epitomized nirguna bhakti. Raised by Muslims, his verses critiqued
both religions' dogmas, advocating Ram as formless truth. Bijak and other works
used rustic imagery, denouncing idols, pilgrimages, and castes: "If by
worshipping stones one can find God, I shall worship a mountain."
His syncretism influenced Sikhs and
Hindus, with followers forming Kabirpanth. Kabir's emphasis on guru's role and
inner purity resonated with artisans, challenging elite dominance. Legends of
his Hindu-Muslim funeral underscore his unifying appeal.
Guru
Nanak and Sikh Bhakti
Guru Nanak (1469-1539), founder of
Sikhism, extended nirguna bhakti. Born in Punjab, his travels exposed him to
diverse faiths, leading to the mantra "Ek Onkar" (One God). He
rejected rituals, establishing langar (community kitchen) for equality.
Adi Granth compiles his and other
saints' hymns, blending bhakti with social ethics. Nanak's successors like Guru
Angad formalized the tradition, evolving into a distinct faith. Sikh bhakti
emphasized honest work, sharing, and devotion, countering Mughal orthodoxy.
Vaishnava
Bhakti: Tulsidas and Surdas
Tulsidas (1532-1623) popularized
saguna bhakti through Ramcharitmanas, retelling Ramayana in Awadhi. Amid Mughal
rule, it reinforced dharma and devotion, with Rama as compassionate lord. His
works like Vinaya Patrika expressed personal longing.
Surdas (1478-1583), blind poet, sang
of Krishna's childhood in Braj Bhasha, collected in Sur Sagar. Patronized by
Akbar, his verses evoked maternal love, humanizing God. These poets made bhakti
literary, accessible via kathas (storytellings).
Krishna
Bhakti: Mirabai and Chaitanya
Mirabai (1498-1546), Rajput
princess, defied norms for Krishna devotion. Her bhajans expressed ecstatic love,
viewing Krishna as husband. Facing persecution, she wandered, symbolizing
women's spiritual independence.
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1533) in
Bengal revived Krishna bhakti through sankirtan (group chanting). His Gaudiya
Vaishnavism, influenced by Radha-Krishna romance, spread via ISKCON later.
Chaitanya's trance-like devotion inspired masses, blending emotion with
philosophy.
Women
in the Bhakti Movement
Women played vital roles,
challenging patriarchy. Andal's passionate hymns set precedents. Mirabai's
rebellion inspired; Akkamahadevi in Karnataka renounced clothes for Shiva,
critiquing materialism.
Lalleshwari (Lal Ded) in Kashmir
used vakhs (sayings) for self-realization. Bahinabai in Maharashtra balanced
householder duties with devotion. Their participation highlighted bhakti's
gender inclusivity, empowering voices in a male-dominated society.
Social
Reforms and Impact
Bhakti dismantled caste: saints like
Raidas elevated untouchables. It promoted vernaculars, eroding Sanskrit's
monopoly, fostering regional literatures.
Economically, it supported artisans;
socially, reduced conversions by offering reformed Hinduism. Politically, it
subtly resisted tyranny, influencing rulers like Akbar's sulh-i-kul.
Cultural
Contributions: Literature and Poetry
Bhakti produced vast literature:
Tamil Divya Prabandham, Hindi pads by Kabir, Punjabi by Nanak. Vernacular
poetry democratized expression, using metaphors from daily life.
Epics like Ramcharitmanas became
cultural staples, recited in villages.
Music,
Dance, and Festivals
Bhakti revolutionized music: kirtan
and bhajan with instruments like ektara. Abhangs in Maharashtra, bauls in
Bengal blended folk with classical.
Dances like Garba honored Krishna.
Festivals like Janmashtami involved processions, reinforcing community.
Architecture
and Art
Temples like Vrindavan's became
devotion centers. Art depicted leelas (divine plays), with miniatures
illustrating bhakti themes.
Syncretism
with Sufism
Bhakti and Sufi shared mysticism:
both emphasized love, influencing each other. Kabir and Nanak embodied this
Hindu-Muslim amity.
In Deccan, bhakti sects integrated
Sufi practices like qawwali adaptations.
Challenges
and Decline
Orthodox Brahmins opposed its
anti-ritualism; Mughal zealots persecuted saints. Yet, it adapted, surviving
colonial eras.
Decline came with
institutionalization, but revivals persist.
Legacy
of the Bhakti Movement
Bhakti shaped modern Hinduism,
inspiring Gandhi's satyagraha and social reforms. Its egalitarian ideals
influence India's secular fabric, with global diaspora through songs and
stories.
