Devaladevi

Question: Devaladevi -

Answer:

Devaladevi, also known as Deval Devi, was a princess from medieval India whose life became a symbol of tragedy, love, and political intrigue during the Delhi Sultanate era. She lived around the early 14th century and is best known as the daughter of Karan Deva II, the last Vaghela king of Gujarat. Her story is linked to the powerful Khalji dynasty, especially through her marriage to Khizr Khan, the eldest son of Sultan Alauddin Khalji. Devaladevi's life was marked by capture, forced marriage, and a legendary romance that inspired poems and stories. Though her existence is based on historical accounts, some parts are romanticized in literature like Amir Khusrau's poem "Ashiqa." She represents the fate of royal women in a time of conquests, where they were often used as pawns in power games. Devaladevi's tale highlights the clash between Hindu kingdoms and Muslim invaders, showing how personal lives got caught in larger historical events.

Early Life and Family Background

Devaladevi was born around 1290s in Anhilwara (modern Patan, Gujarat), the capital of the Vaghela kingdom. Her father, Karan Deva II (also called Karna or Karan Vaghela), ruled Gujarat from about 1296 to 1304. He was a Rajput king from the Vaghela dynasty, which had taken over from the Solankis. Her mother was Kamala Devi (or Kamaladevi), who was originally the queen of the previous Solanki king but married Karan after his victory.

Devaladevi grew up in a royal palace full of luxury, learning music, dance, and court manners. Gujarat was rich with temples, trade, and culture at that time. But her childhood ended abruptly due to invasions by the Delhi Sultanate. In 1299, Sultan Alauddin Khalji sent his generals Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan to conquer Gujarat. They wanted its wealth, ports, and to stop rebellions. Karan Deva fought but lost. He fled to Devagiri (modern Daulatabad) with his family.

During the invasion, Kamala Devi was captured and sent to Delhi, where Alauddin married her, making her one of his queens. Devaladevi, then about 8-10 years old, escaped with her father. They lived as refugees in Devagiri under the Yadava king Ramachandra, who gave them shelter. For a few years, Devaladevi stayed hidden, but her beauty and royal blood made her famous through stories and spies.

In 1305-1306, when Alauddin's army attacked Devagiri for not paying tribute, Devaladevi was captured. Malik Kafur, Alauddin's trusted general, found her and sent her to Delhi. At around 15 years old, she arrived in the Sultan's court, far from her home and family. Her father Karan died soon after in exile, broken by defeats.

Marriage and Life in Delhi

In Delhi, Devaladevi's life changed forever. Alauddin Khalji, impressed by her grace, decided to marry her to his son Khizr Khan. Khizr was the crown prince, born around 1290, and already married but fell in love with Devaladevi's descriptions. According to legends, Khizr begged his father for her hand, even going on a hunger strike. Alauddin agreed, and they married in 1308 in a grand ceremony.

The marriage was unusual – a Hindu princess to a Muslim prince. Devaladevi converted to Islam or at least lived in the Muslim court. Their love story became legendary. Amir Khusrau wrote "Duwal Rani Khizr Khan" (or Ashiqa), a poem about their romance, calling it a tale of passion like Romeo and Juliet. Khizr wrote poems for her, and they spent happy times in palaces like Siri Fort. Devaladevi learned Persian and court ways, becoming a cultured lady. She influenced Khizr to be kind and artistic.

But happiness was short. Alauddin died in 1316, and chaos followed. Khizr's brother Mubarak Shah took the throne after killing rivals. In 1318, Mubarak blinded Khizr and imprisoned him. Devaladevi suffered greatly, separated from her husband. In 1320, Khizr was killed on Mubarak's orders. Devaladevi's fate after that is unclear. Some say she was forced to marry Mubarak or another noble, others say she lived in sorrow or died soon. Her story ends tragically, like many women in those times.

Legacy and Cultural Impact

Devaladevi's legacy lives in history and art. She shows the human side of conquests – how wars destroyed families. As a symbol of beauty and tragedy, she inspired many tales. Amir Khusrau's poem made her famous, mixing fact with fiction. Later writers like Ferishta mentioned her in chronicles. In modern times, books, plays, and films retell her story. For example, a 1983 Bollywood movie "Razia Sultan" touches on similar themes, though not directly about her.

Devaladevi represents Rajput pride and the pain of defeat. In Gujarat, she is remembered as a brave princess. Her life highlights women's roles in medieval India – often victims of politics but sometimes influencers. Though captured, she adapted and found love, showing resilience. Historians debate if the romance was real or exaggerated, but it adds romance to the brutal Khalji era.

Devaladevi's story teaches about tolerance too. A Hindu princess in a Muslim court bridged cultures. Today, she inspires stories of love across divides. Her grave is unknown, but her name endures in India's rich history.

Ala ud din khilji

 

Answer: Ala-ud-din Khalji: Military and Market Reforms

Ala-ud-din Khalji was one of the strongest rulers of the Delhi Sultanate in India. He ruled from 1296 to 1316 CE and belonged to the Khalji dynasty. Before him, the Sultanate was weak with many rebellions and threats from outside. Ala-ud-din changed that with his smart ideas in the army and economy. He is famous for his military reforms, which made the army big and loyal, and his market reforms, which controlled prices to help the people and soldiers. These changes helped him conquer new lands and keep the kingdom safe. Ala-ud-din was born around 1266 CE in a Turkish family. He started as a soldier under his uncle, Jalal-ud-din Khalji, the first Khalji Sultan. In 1296, Ala-ud-din killed his uncle and became Sultan. He was ambitious and wanted to be like Alexander the Great. To do that, he needed a strong army and money. His reforms were practical and strict. He believed in hard work, discipline, and fear to control people. In this notes, I will explain his military and market reforms in simple words, step by step. These reforms made the Delhi Sultanate powerful and influenced later rulers.

Why Reforms Were Needed

Before Ala-ud-din, the Delhi Sultanate faced big problems. The army was not well-organized. Soldiers were often from different groups like Turks, Afghans, and Indians. They got land (iqtas) instead of cash pay, which made them lazy and rebellious. Nobles had too much power and could plot against the Sultan. There were constant attacks from Mongols in the north. Inside, Rajput kings and local chiefs rebelled often. The economy was also bad. Prices of food and goods were high, especially in Delhi, the capital. Merchants cheated people, and there was hoarding during wars. Soldiers couldn't afford basic things, which made them unhappy. Ala-ud-din saw that a weak army and high prices would destroy his dreams of conquest. So, he made reforms to fix these issues. His advisor, Malik Kafur, a clever slave, helped him plan these changes. Ala-ud-din wanted a big army that was cheap to maintain, so he controlled the market to keep prices low. These reforms were connected: a happy, well-fed army could win wars, and victories brought money to the treasury.

Ala-ud-din's reforms were inspired by Persian and Islamic ideas, but he made them fit for India. He read books on kingship and learned from past rulers like Balban, who was strict but not as bold. Ala-ud-din went further by using spies, punishments, and new rules. He said, "I am the deputy of God on earth," to make people obey him. Now, let's look at his military reforms first.

Military Reforms

Ala-ud-din knew that a strong army was the key to power. He built the largest standing army in India at that time, with about 475,000 soldiers. This was huge compared to earlier Sultans who had smaller forces. To manage such a big army, he made many changes.

First, he introduced a system of paying soldiers in cash instead of land. Before, soldiers got iqtas (land grants) where they collected taxes themselves. This made them like small kings, independent and corrupt. Ala-ud-din stopped this for most soldiers. He paid them fixed salaries from the royal treasury. This made them depend on the Sultan for money, so they stayed loyal. Officers still got iqtas, but Ala-ud-din watched them closely. He took back iqtas if they misbehaved. This reform helped him control the army better and stop rebellions.

Second, Ala-ud-din created the "dagh" and "chehra" systems. "Dagh" means branding horses with a hot iron mark. Every soldier's horse got a unique brand to show it belonged to the royal army. This stopped soldiers from using fake or weak horses during reviews. "Chehra" was a description roll, like an ID card. It had the soldier's face sketch, age, height, and other details. This prevented cheating, like sending someone else in place during musters (army checks). Ala-ud-din held regular reviews where soldiers and horses were inspected. If anything was wrong, they got punished. These rules made the army honest and ready for war.

Third, he built a spy network called "barids." Spies were everywhere – in the army, court, markets, and even homes of nobles. They reported directly to the Sultan about any disloyalty or problems. Ala-ud-din punished traitors harshly, like executing them publicly. This created fear, but it kept the army disciplined. No one dared to plot against him.

Fourth, Ala-ud-din recruited soldiers from all groups, not just Turks. He hired Afghans, Mongols who converted to Islam, and even some Hindus. This made the army diverse and strong. He trained them well in archery, sword fighting, and horse riding. He also increased the cavalry (horse soldiers), which was fast and effective against enemies like Rajputs who used elephants.

Fifth, he set up a central department called "Diwan-i-Arz" for the army. It was headed by the Ariz-i-Mumalik, who handled recruitment, pay, and equipment. Ala-ud-din made sure weapons like swords, bows, and armor were of good quality. He stored extra supplies in forts for emergencies.

These reforms helped Ala-ud-din win many wars. He conquered Gujarat in 1299, taking lots of wealth and slaves. In 1301, he captured Ranthambore fort from Rajputs after a long siege. In 1303, he took Chittor, another strong Rajput fort. His biggest success was in south India. From 1307 to 1311, his general Malik Kafur attacked kingdoms like Devagiri (Yadavas), Warangal (Kakatiyas), Dwarasamudra (Hoysalas), and Madurai (Pandyas). They didn't occupy the south fully but made the kings pay tribute (yearly money). This brought huge wealth to Delhi, like gold, jewels, and elephants.

Ala-ud-din also defended against Mongols. Between 1299 and 1308, Mongols attacked five times, but Ala-ud-din's army stopped them. In 1299, at the Battle of Kili, his general Zafar Khan defeated 200,000 Mongols with just 30,000 men. Ala-ud-din built forts along the northwest border and kept a big army there. He even dreamed of conquering the world but focused on India.

The military reforms had some downsides. The strict rules made soldiers unhappy sometimes. Pay was low to save money, and branding was painful for horses. But overall, they made the Sultanate safe and expanded it to its biggest size under Ala-ud-din.

Market Reforms

Ala-ud-din’s market reforms were unique. He controlled prices of everyday goods to keep them cheap, especially for the army. Why? His big army needed low-cost food and supplies. If prices were high, soldiers would complain or rebel. Also, during wars, merchants raised prices, which hurt the poor. Ala-ud-din wanted to stop this.

He set up a department called "Diwan-i-Riyasat" for markets, headed by an officer called Shahna-i-Mandi. This office fixed prices for everything in Delhi and nearby areas. For example:

• Wheat: 7.5 jitals per maund (about 37 kg)
• Rice: 5 jitals per maund
• Sugar: 1.5 jitals per seer (about 1 kg)
• Cloth: Fixed rates for different types
• Horses: 100-120 tankas for good ones
• Slaves: 5-12 tankas

These prices were very low, about half of before. To make it work, Ala-ud-din used strict rules.

First, he controlled supply. Farmers had to sell grains to the government at fixed rates. He built big storehouses (granaries) in Delhi to store food for three years. During shortages, the government sold from these stores at low prices. This stopped hoarding.

Second, he regulated merchants. All traders had to register with the government. They got licenses and had to sell at fixed prices. If they cheated, they got heavy punishments like fines, jail, or even skinning alive. Spies watched shops to catch violators.

Third, he banned black marketing. No one could store extra goods at home. Ration cards were given to people for buying limited amounts. For example, a family could buy only a certain amount of grain per week.

Fourth, he controlled transport. Bullocks and carts for carrying goods were registered. Prices for transport were fixed too. This helped bring goods from villages to Delhi cheaply.

Fifth, he reduced luxuries. He banned wine, parties, and gambling to save money and keep people focused. Nobles couldn't have big weddings or buy expensive things without permission.

These reforms were mainly in Delhi and Doab, where the army was based. They worked because Ala-ud-din was strict. Once, when merchants complained about low profits, he said, "I am not a trader; I am a king." Prices stayed low for years, helping the army and poor people. Soldiers could live on their pay without problems.

But the reforms had issues. Farmers didn't like selling cheap and sometimes hid crops. Merchants lost money and tried to cheat. Punishments were too harsh, scaring people. After Ala-ud-din's death, the system collapsed because no one was as strict.

Impact of Reforms

Ala-ud-din's reforms changed the Sultanate. Militarily, he created a professional army that won against strong enemies. The Sultanate grew from Gujarat to Bengal and south to Tamil Nadu (as tributaries). He collected huge taxes and tribute, making the treasury rich. Delhi became a grand city with new buildings like the Alai Darwaza and Siri Fort.

Economically, market controls stopped inflation and famines in Delhi. Trade grew because roads were safe. But it hurt free business; merchants couldn't make big profits. Socially, the reforms made society more equal in some ways – rich nobles couldn't show off, and poor people got cheap food. But fear was everywhere due to spies and punishments.

Ala-ud-din's legacy is strong. Later rulers like Muhammad Tughlaq tried similar ideas but failed. Historians say he was a genius administrator but a tyrant. He died in 1316 from illness, possibly poisoned. His son Qutb-ud-din Mubarak Shah ruled next, but the dynasty ended soon.

In simple terms, Ala-ud-din Khalji's military and market reforms made him a legend. He showed how a strong leader can change a kingdom with bold ideas. His story teaches about power, control, and the need for balance.

Salve dynsaty - Balban

Question: Balban -  Download Audio file - Balban

Answer:

Ghiyas ud din Balban was one of the most important rulers of the Delhi Sultanate in India. He ruled from 1266 to 1287 CE and was part of the Slave Dynasty, also known as the Mamluk Dynasty. Balban is famous for making the Sultanate strong and stable during a time of many problems like rebellions and invasions. He was a strict leader who believed the king should be like a god on earth, with total power. His real name was Ghiyas ud din, but people called him Balban, which means "lord" or "chief" in Turkish. He came from a slave background but rose to become the Sultan through hard work, clever politics, and military skills. Balban's rule lasted about 21 years, and he focused on law and order, breaking the power of nobles, and protecting the kingdom from enemies. He is often called the "Iron Man" of the Delhi Sultanate because of his tough ways. In these notes, I will explain his life, achievements, and legacy in simple words.

Early Life and Background

Balban was born around 1205 CE in Central Asia, in a place called Turkestan. He belonged to the Ilbari tribe, which was Turkish. As a young boy, he was captured by Mongol invaders during their raids. The Mongols sold him as a slave in Baghdad, a big city in the Middle East. There, a kind merchant bought him and raised him well. Balban learned to read, write, and fight. He was smart, tall, and strong, which helped him later.

In the 1230s, Balban was brought to India and sold again. Sultan Iltutmish, the ruler of Delhi at that time, bought him because he saw potential in the young slave. Iltutmish was also a former slave who had become Sultan, so he understood Balban's situation. Balban joined the royal court and quickly rose in ranks. He became part of the "Chahalgani," a group of 40 powerful Turkish slaves who helped run the kingdom. These nobles were like a private club that controlled everything, including who became the next Sultan.

Balban married Iltutmish's daughter to get closer to the royal family. He served as a general in the army and fought in many battles. During Razia Sultana's rule (1236–1240), who was Iltutmish's daughter and the first woman Sultan, Balban was one of the nobles who opposed her. He didn't like her because she promoted non-Turkish people, like her Ethiopian advisor Yaqut. Balban and other Chahalgani members rebelled against Razia, leading to her death in 1240.

After Razia, the throne went to weak rulers like Bahram Shah (1240–1242) and Ala-ud-din Masud Shah (1242–1246). During this time, Balban became more powerful. He was appointed as "Naib-i-Mamlakat," which means deputy to the Sultan, under Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (1246–1266), who was Iltutmish's grandson. Nasir was a simple, religious man who let Balban handle most affairs. For 20 years, Balban ruled in Nasir's name as the real power behind the throne. He used this time to build his strength and plan for the future.

Balban's early life taught him important lessons. Coming from slavery, he knew how hard life could be. He saw the chaos after Iltutmish's death, with quick changes in rulers and rebellions everywhere. This made him decide that a strong, feared king was needed to keep the kingdom safe. He also learned to be cunning in politics, making alliances and removing enemies quietly.

Rise to Power

Balban's rise was slow but steady. As Naib under Nasir-ud-din, he controlled the army and administration. He fought off threats from outside, like the Mongols who were invading from the north. In 1253, he defeated a Mongol attack near the Indus River. He also crushed internal rebellions, such as those by Rajput kings in Doab (the area between Ganga and Yamuna rivers) and in Bengal.

The Chahalgani nobles were a big problem. They were powerful and often plotted against the Sultan. Balban was part of them but wanted to weaken their hold. He slowly removed rivals by sending them to far-away posts or accusing them of crimes. For example, he got rid of Imad-ud-din Raihan, a non-Turkish noble who tried to challenge the Turks.

In 1266, Nasir-ud-din died without a son. Some say Balban poisoned him, but there's no proof. Balban quickly took the throne, declaring himself Sultan Ghiyas ud din Balban. At age 60, he was old but full of energy. The nobles accepted him because he was strong and experienced. To show his power, Balban adopted royal symbols from ancient Persian kings. He called himself "Zil-i-Ilahi," meaning "Shadow of God," and said the king was divine. He made people bow low (sijda) and kiss his feet (paibos) in court. No one could laugh or joke in his presence; the court was like a serious temple.

Balban's rise shows how slaves could become kings in the Sultanate. It was a system where merit and loyalty mattered more than birth. But once in power, Balban changed that by making the throne seem sacred and untouchable.

Reign as Sultan: Policies and Reforms

Balban's reign was all about strength and control. He believed a weak king meant a weak kingdom. His main goal was to make the Sultan supreme and crush any opposition.

First, he reformed the army. The old army had many lazy soldiers who got paid without working. Balban checked their records and removed thousands of unfit men. He introduced "dagh" (branding horses) and "huliya" (describing soldiers) to stop cheating. This made the army efficient and loyal only to him.

Second, he broke the Chahalgani. These 40 nobles had too much power and often rebelled. Balban killed, poisoned, or exiled many of them. For example, he executed Sher Khan, a relative, on false charges. By the end, only a few loyal ones remained. This ended the noble group's control and made the Sultan the absolute boss.

Third, Balban improved law and order. The kingdom had many robbers and rebels. He created a spy system (barids) to watch everyone, even his own sons. Spies reported daily on events across the land. Balban punished criminals harshly; he once hanged robbers publicly to scare others. In Doab, he cleared forests where thieves hid and built forts. This made roads safer for traders and travelers.

Balban also changed the court culture. He brought Persian traditions to make the Sultan seem like a god. No one could sit without permission, and the court was full of ceremonies. He wore rich clothes and jewels to look royal. He avoided mixing with common people and never smiled in public. This "theory of kingship" helped him gain respect and fear.

In administration, Balban divided the kingdom into provinces (iqtas) led by governors (muqtis) who reported to him. He collected taxes strictly but fairly. Farmers paid one-third of their crops as tax, but he helped during famines. He built canals for farming and encouraged trade with other countries.

Balban was a devout Muslim. He followed Islamic laws and supported ulema (scholars). But he was tolerant of Hindus; he didn't force conversions and let them practice their religion. He built mosques and helped Sufi saints. However, he destroyed some Hindu temples during wars to show power.

Balban's policies worked. The kingdom became peaceful inside, with no big rebellions during his rule. People felt safe, and trade grew. But his strictness made him enemies, and some called him a tyrant.

Military Campaigns and Defense

Balban was a great warrior. His main enemy was the Mongols, who were conquering Asia under leaders like Hulagu Khan. Mongols attacked India many times, reaching as far as Lahore. Balban built strong forts along the northwest border, like in Punjab and Sindh. He placed his best generals there, including his son Prince Muhammad.

In 1279, a big Mongol army invaded. Balban's forces, led by Prince Muhammad, fought them near Multan but lost. Prince Muhammad was captured and killed in 1285, which broke Balban's heart. But Balban didn't give up; he sent more troops and pushed the Mongols back. By his death, the Mongols couldn't enter deep into India.

Balban also fought internal enemies. In Bengal, Governor Tughril Khan rebelled in 1280 because he wanted independence. Balban sent armies, but they failed twice. Angry, Balban went himself at age 80. He captured Tughril, executed him publicly, and hanged his supporters from trees. This cruel act scared other governors from rebelling.

In the Doab region, there were Meo tribes who robbed travelers. Balban cleared their forests, killed many, and built military posts. He also suppressed Rajput revolts in Rajasthan areas like Ajmer and Nagaur.

Balban didn't expand the kingdom much; he focused on defense. He said, "A king should protect what he has before taking more." His army was well-trained, with cavalry (horse soldiers) as the main force. He paid them well to keep loyalty.

These campaigns showed Balban's determination. He lost his favorite son but kept the Sultanate safe from collapse.

Architecture, Culture, and Society

Balban loved Persian culture. He made Delhi a center of learning and art. Poets, scholars, and artists from Persia came to his court. Famous poets like Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan wrote praises for him. Khusrau called Balban "the shadow of God." Balban supported music, poetry, and history writing.

In architecture, Balban built his tomb in Delhi, which is simple but strong, showing his style. He repaired old buildings like the Qutub Minar after damage. He also built forts and palaces, but many are lost now.

Society under Balban was divided. Muslims were the ruling class, mostly Turks. Hindus were farmers and traders, paying taxes like kharaj (land tax) and jizya (poll tax). Balban was strict but not cruel to Hindus; he let them keep their customs. Slavery was common; he had thousands of slaves in his army and court.

Balban promoted education. He built madrasas (schools) for Islamic studies. He was religious, praying five times a day and fasting. But he drank wine in private, which was against Islam, showing he wasn't perfect.

Women's role was limited, but Balban respected his wife. He had two sons: Muhammad (who died) and Bughra Khan, who became governor of Bengal.

Balban's cultural policies made Delhi a beautiful city, mixing Turkish, Persian, and Indian styles.

Death and Legacy

Balban died in 1287 CE at age 82. The death of his son Muhammad in 1285 had made him sad and weak. He named his grandson Kai Khusrau as heir, but after his death, nobles chose Kaiqubad, Muhammad's son. Kaiqubad was young and weak, leading to more chaos. The Slave Dynasty ended soon after with the rise of the Khilji Dynasty in 1290.

Balban's legacy is mixed. He saved the Sultanate from falling apart. Before him, there were quick changes in rulers; after him, it lasted longer. His ideas about kingship influenced later rulers like Alauddin Khilji. He made the Sultan powerful and the nobles weak, creating a centralized government.

But Balban was too strict. His cruelty, like public executions, made people fear him more than love him. He didn't expand the kingdom or make big economic changes. Some historians say he was a dictator who ignored the people's needs.

Today, Balban is remembered as a strong leader who protected India from Mongols. His tomb in Delhi is a historical site. Books and stories tell of his justice and power. In simple terms, Balban was the man who turned a shaky kingdom into a solid empire through fear and smart rule.

Slave dynasty - Razia Sultana

Salve dynasty 

Question: Razia Sultana: Detailed Notes 

Answer: Razia Sultana, also known as Raziya al-Din or simply Razia, was a groundbreaking figure in Indian history. She was the first and only woman to rule the Delhi Sultanate, a Muslim kingdom that controlled much of northern India from the 13th to 16th century. Razia ruled from 1236 to 1240 CE, making her not just the first female Sultan of Delhi but also the only Muslim woman to ever sit on such a throne in the Indian subcontinent. Her reign was short but remarkable because she challenged the male-dominated world of medieval politics. Born into the Slave Dynasty (also called the Mamluk Dynasty), Razia was the daughter of Sultan Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, who was himself a former slave who rose to power. Razia's story is one of courage, intelligence, and tragedy. She tried to govern fairly, promote education and arts, and make reforms, but faced strong opposition from powerful nobles who couldn't accept a woman as their leader. Her life shows how hard it was for women in power during that time, and she remains a symbol of female empowerment in history.

In the 13th century, the Delhi Sultanate was still new. It started in 1206 when Qutb-ud-din Aibak, a slave general, became the first Sultan after the death of his master, Muhammad of Ghor. The kingdom was ruled by Turkish slaves who had converted to Islam and gained power through military skills. Women had little role in politics; they were expected to stay in the background, managing households or influencing from behind the scenes. But Razia broke this mold. She was trained in administration, warfare, and horse-riding by her father, who saw her potential. Iltutmish had several sons, but he thought they were weak and unfit to rule. He once said, "My sons are given to pleasures and cannot manage the empire." So, he named Razia as his heir, which shocked many people. This decision was bold because Islamic traditions and Turkish customs favored male rulers. Razia's reign came at a time when the Sultanate was facing threats from Mongols in the north and rebellions from local Hindu kings like the Rajputs. She had to prove herself in a world full of enemies.

Early Life and Background

Razia was born around 1205 CE in Delhi or Badaun (now in Uttar Pradesh, India). Her full name was Jalalat-ud-din Raziya, and she belonged to the Ilbari Turk tribe from Central Asia. Her father, Iltutmish, was captured as a slave but became a trusted general under Qutb-ud-din Aibak. After Aibak's death in 1210, Iltutmish took the throne in 1211 and ruled wisely for 25 years. He expanded the Sultanate, introduced new coins, and built famous structures like the Qutub Minar. Razia's mother was Shah Turkan, a Turkish noblewoman who was Iltutmish's chief wife. Razia had brothers like Rukn-ud-din Firuz and Nasir-ud-din Mahmud, but they were more interested in luxury than ruling.

From a young age, Razia was different. While her brothers enjoyed parties, she learned archery, sword fighting, and how to ride horses. Iltutmish treated her like a son, taking her on military campaigns and teaching her about governance. She helped manage the kingdom when her father was away fighting wars. Historians say she was smart, brave, and fair-minded. She read books on history, religion, and strategy. Sufi saints like Khwaja Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki influenced her, teaching her about justice and kindness. By her teens, Razia was handling court matters and even leading prayers in mosques, which was unusual for women.

In 1236, when Iltutmish was dying, he officially named Razia as his successor. He told his nobles, "Though a woman, she is better than my sons." This was a big deal because the "Chahalgani" (Group of Forty), a powerful group of Turkish nobles, didn't like it. They wanted a male ruler they could control. After Iltutmish's death on April 30, 1236, the nobles first put Razia's brother Rukn-ud-din on the throne. But Rukn-ud-din was lazy and cruel; he spent time on pleasures while his mother Shah Turkan killed rivals. This caused chaos, with rebellions in places like Lahore and Bengal. The army and people supported Razia because she promised better rule. Within six months, Rukn-ud-din was overthrown and killed, and Razia became Sultan on November 10, 1236.

Razia's early life prepared her well. She was about 31 when she became Sultan, experienced in politics and war. But being a woman in a man's world meant she had to work twice as hard to prove herself. She stopped wearing veils (purdah) and dressed like a man in tunic, trousers, and a hat. She rode elephants and horses openly, leading her army. This shocked the conservative ulema (Islamic scholars) and nobles, who said it was against tradition. But Razia believed in equality and merit, not gender.

Reign and Achievements

Razia's four-year reign was full of action. She ruled from Delhi, the capital her father had strengthened. Her first task was to win over the nobles. She kept many of her father's ministers but promoted loyal people based on talent, not birth. This included non-Turks like Ethiopians and Indians, which angered the Turkish Chahalgani. One of her favorites was Jamal-ud-din Yaqut, an Ethiopian slave who became her chief advisor and master of stables (Amir-i-Akhur). Rumors spread that they were lovers, but historians say it was just gossip to defame her.

In administration, Razia was efficient. She held open courts (darbar) where common people could complain directly. She improved justice by punishing corrupt officials. She divided the kingdom into provinces (iqtas) and appointed honest governors. To keep peace, she suppressed rebellions quickly. For example, in 1237, she defeated a revolt by the governor of Lahore, Kabir Khan. She also recaptured Ranthambore fort from Rajputs in 1237–1238.

Economically, Razia made smart changes. She issued new silver coins called "tankas" with her name and title "Sultana Raziya," showing her as a legitimate ruler. These coins helped trade. She built roads connecting villages to cities, making travel safer and boosting business. She encouraged farming by digging wells and canals for irrigation. Razia abolished the "Jazia" tax on Hindus in some areas, which was a poll tax on non-Muslims. This made her popular among Hindus and reduced rebellions. She promoted education by building schools (madrasas) and libraries. Arts flourished; poets and artists got royal support. She loved music and poetry, often holding cultural events in her court.

Militarily, Razia was brave. She led armies personally, wearing armor. In 1238, she crushed a rebellion in Gwalior. She defended the Sultanate from Mongol threats in the northwest by strengthening forts along the Indus River. Her army was diverse, including Turks, Afghans, and even Hindu soldiers, showing her inclusive approach. Razia also worked on social reforms. She encouraged widow remarriage and fought against slavery abuses. As a devout Muslim, she built mosques but respected other religions. She visited Sufi shrines and helped the poor, earning the title "Sultana-e-Hind" (Empress of India).

One big achievement was maintaining unity. The Sultanate stretched from Bengal to Punjab, and Razia kept it together despite plots. She improved the spy system to watch enemies. Her reign saw no major famines or invasions, and trade with Persia and Central Asia grew. Historians like Minhaj-us-Siraj (who wrote Tabaqat-i-Nasiri) praised her as wise and just. He said, "She was endowed with all the qualities befitting a king." Razia's policies laid the base for later rulers like Balban.

But not everything was perfect. Razia's favoritism toward Yaqut caused jealousy. Nobles felt she ignored Turkish traditions by promoting outsiders. They whispered that a woman couldn't rule effectively. These issues led to her downfall.

Challenges and Downfall

Razia faced huge challenges from the start. The biggest was sexism. The Turkish nobles, ulema, and army leaders believed only men should rule. They saw her as weak because she was a woman. Razia's decision to appear in public without a veil and ride horses like men offended them. They spread rumors about her relationship with Yaqut to damage her reputation. In Islam, close ties between a queen and a slave were seen as scandalous.

Rebellions started soon. In 1239, the governor of Bhatinda, Altunia, rebelled because he was demoted. Other nobles like those in Lahore and Multan joined him. Razia marched with her army to fight them. She captured Bhatinda but was defeated near Kaithal in Haryana. Her soldiers deserted her, and Yaqut was killed in battle. Razia was imprisoned by Altunia in Bhatinda fort.

To survive, Razia married Altunia in 1240, hoping to gain his support against other rebels. They gathered an army and marched to Delhi to reclaim the throne. But her brother Bahram Shah had already become Sultan with the nobles' help. On October 13, 1240, Razia and Altunia's army fought Bahram's forces near Delhi but lost. They fled but were caught by local Jat farmers near Kaithal. The farmers robbed and killed them on October 14, 1240. Razia was only 35. Her body was buried in a simple grave in Kaithal, later moved to Delhi near the Turkman Gate. Some say her tomb is there today, visited by admirers.

Razia's downfall was due to betrayal by nobles who couldn't accept a female ruler. The Chahalgani group wanted power for themselves. Her inclusive policies, like hiring non-Turks, made enemies. Historians argue that if she had more time, she could have been a great ruler like her father. Her death led to unstable years in the Sultanate until Balban took control in 1266.

               Legacy and Impact

Razia Sultana's legacy is inspiring. She proved women could rule as well as men, even in tough times. Her story is told in books, plays, and movies. In 1983, a Bollywood film "Razia Sultan" starred Hema Malini as Razia, showing her life. Poets like Mirza Ghalib wrote about her bravery. Today, she is a role model for women's rights in South Asia. Schools and roads are named after her in India and Pakistan.

Her reign impacted the Delhi Sultanate. It showed the dangers of noble power, leading later rulers like Balban to weaken the Chahalgani. Razia's coins and buildings are historical treasures. The Qutub complex, which she helped complete, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Socially, she promoted tolerance between Muslims and Hindus, setting an example for future kings.

But her story also highlights gender inequality. In a patriarchal society, even a talented woman faced betrayal. Feminist historians see her as a victim of misogyny. In modern times, Razia inspires movements for women's leadership. Pakistan's first female Prime Minister, Benazir Bhutto, compared herself to Razia.

Razia's life teaches lessons about power, prejudice, and perseverance. Though her rule was brief, her name lives on as the "Warrior Queen" who dared to lead.

Salve dynasty Iltutmish

Question: Iltutmish:

Answer:           Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (r. 1211–1236) was the third and most influential ruler of the Slave Dynasty (Mamluk Dynasty) in the Delhi Sultanate. Often regarded as the effective founder of the Sultanate, he transformed Delhi into a stable Muslim capital and consolidated power after the turbulent early years. Born around 1180 in Central Asia (Turkestan) to the Ilbari tribe, Iltutmish was captured as a child and sold into slavery. He was purchased by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, a general under Muhammad Ghori, who recognized his talents in military skills, horsemanship, and administration. Iltutmish rose quickly, serving as governor of Badaun and marrying Aibak's daughter.

 Rise to Power

After Aibak's death in 1210, his son Aram Shah ascended but proved incompetent, lasting only eight months. In 1211, Turkish nobles (amirs) invited Iltutmish to Delhi, where he defeated Aram in battle and claimed the throne. He faced immediate threats: rival Ghurid generals like Taj-ud-din Yildiz (Ghazni) and Nasir-ud-din Qabacha (Multan) challenged him. Iltutmish defeated Yildiz in 1215 at Tarain and Qabacha by 1228, securing Punjab and Sindh. He also repelled Mongol invasions under Genghis Khan by refusing asylum to the Khwarizm prince Jalal-ud-din, avoiding direct conflict. Domestically, he suppressed Rajput rebellions in Ranthambore (1226), Mandor, Bayana, and Gwalior, and brought Bengal under control by defeating Ghiyas-ud-din in 1225–1227.

 Achievements

Iltutmish's military successes expanded the Sultanate from Bengal to the Indus. Administratively, he organized the "Turkan-i-Chihalgani" (Group of Forty), a loyal cadre of Turkish slave-nobles who formed the core of governance but later became a power bloc. He introduced the Iqtadari system, assigning land grants (iqtas) to officers for revenue collection and military service, ensuring loyalty and efficiency. To legitimize his rule, he received investiture from the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mustansir in 1229, adopting titles like "Nasir Amir-ul-Mu'minin" (Helper of the Commander of the Faithful). Economically, he minted the silver tanka (175 grains) and copper jital, standardizing currency and boosting trade.

Architecturally, Iltutmish completed the Qutub Minar (started by Aibak) as a victory tower and added to the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque. He built the Hauz-i-Shamsi reservoir and his own tomb in Delhi, blending Persian and Indian styles. Socially, he promoted Sufism, patronizing saints like Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki, and maintained relative tolerance toward Hindus, employing them in administration.

Death and Legacy

Iltutmish died on April 30, 1236, after a prolonged illness, and was buried in Delhi. Lacking capable sons, he nominated his daughter Razia as successor, a bold move in a male-dominated era. His reign brought stability, averting Mongol threats and internal chaos, laying the foundation for a centralized Sultanate that lasted over three centuries. Iltutmish's policies influenced later rulers, and his emphasis on merit over birth (as a former slave) symbolized social mobility in the dynasty. However, the powerful Chihalgani later caused instability. Historians credit him with saving the nascent Muslim rule in India from collapse.

Slave dynasty Qutb ud din Aibak

 

Slave dynasty

 

Question: Qutb ud-Din Aibak

Qutb ud-Din Aibak was the founder of the Delhi Sultanate and the first Muslim ruler of northern India. Born around 1150 in Turkestan (Central Asia), he belonged to a Turkic tribe. He ruled from 1206 to 1210 and started the Slave Dynasty, also called Mamluk Dynasty, because many rulers were former slaves. Aibak was known for his bravery, loyalty, and kindness. People called him "Lakh Baksh," meaning "giver of lakhs," because he donated a lot of money to the poor and his soldiers. He played a big role in bringing Muslim rule to India after his master, Muhammad Ghori, died.

Early Life

Aibak's early life was tough. As a child, he was captured and sold as a slave in Turkestan. He was bought by a Qazi (judge) in Nishapur, Persia, where he learned skills like archery, horse-riding, and reading the Quran. Later, he was sold again to Muhammad Ghori, the ruler of Ghor in Afghanistan. Ghori saw Aibak's talent and made him an officer in the royal stables (Amir-i-Akhur). Aibak worked hard and became a trusted general. During wars against the Khwarazmian Empire, he was captured once but freed after Ghori's victory. His education and skills helped him rise from slave to leader.

Military Career

Aibak was a great soldier under Muhammad Ghori. He helped in key battles that brought Muslim rule to India. In 1191, at the First Battle of Tarain, Ghori lost to Prithviraj Chauhan, but Aibak fought bravely. In 1192, at the Second Battle of Tarain, they won, and Aibak captured Delhi. Ghori left Aibak in charge of Indian lands. Aibak conquered places like Meerut, Aligarh, and Kalinjar. He defeated Rajput kings and raided their forts for treasure. In 1197, he won against the Chaulukya kingdom in Gujarat. By 1205, he controlled much of northern India, including Bengal through his general Bakhtiyar Khalji. After Ghori's death in 1206, Aibak fought rivals like Taj al-Din Yildiz to keep control.

Achievements as Ruler

As Sultan, Aibak focused on building a strong kingdom rather than more wars. He moved the capital from Lahore to Delhi, making it the center of power. He crushed rebellions in Ajmer and Bengal to keep peace. Aibak started a new coin system and improved administration. His biggest achievements were in architecture. He began the Qutub Minar in Delhi, a 73-meter tall tower to honor a Sufi saint, and finished the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque using stones from Hindu temples. In Ajmer, he built the Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra mosque. These buildings mixed Persian and Indian styles, starting Indo-Islamic art. Aibak supported writers and was fair to Hindus, even hiring them in his army. He got recognition from the Ghurid ruler as "Malik" (king) in 1208-1209.

Death and Legacy

Aibak died on November 4, 1210, at age 60. He fell from his horse while playing polo (chaugan) in Lahore, and the saddle's pommel pierced his body, killing him instantly. He was buried in Lahore, where his tomb still stands today, renovated in the 1970s. His son Aram Shah became king but was weak. Soon, Aibak's son-in-law Iltutmish took over and made the Sultanate stronger.

Aibak's legacy is huge. He founded the Delhi Sultanate, which lasted over 300 years. His rule brought stability after Ghori's conquests and started Muslim culture in India. Buildings like Qutub Minar are UNESCO sites now. Though his reign was short, he laid the base for future rulers.

Foundtion of Delhi Sultanate

Question: Foundation of the Delhi Sultanate

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Answer: Introduction to the Foundation of the Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate was a major Muslim kingdom in India that lasted from 1206 to 1526. It started when Turkish and Afghan rulers from Central Asia invaded northern India and set up their rule in Delhi. This period marked the beginning of large-scale Muslim rule in India, changing the country's politics, culture, and society. The foundation came after several invasions by Muslim armies, especially under leaders like Muhammad of Ghor. Before that, India had many Hindu kingdoms, and the arrival of these invaders led to battles and the creation of a new empire. The Sultanate had five main dynasties: Slave, Khilji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, and Lodi. It began with the Slave Dynasty, also called Mamluk, founded by Qutb-ud-din Aibak. This introduction will cover the background, key invasions, important battles, early rulers, and how the Sultanate was established. It laid the base for later empires like the Mughals and brought new ideas in administration, art, and religion to India.

Background of Muslim Invasions in India

Before the Delhi Sultanate, India was divided into small kingdoms ruled by Hindu kings like the Rajputs. In the north, dynasties such as the Pratiharas, Chauhans, and Solankis held power. The south had strong empires like the Cholas. Trade links with Arab merchants brought Islam to India's coasts as early as the 7th century, but invasions started later.

The first major Muslim invader was Mahmud of Ghazni from Afghanistan. Between 1000 and 1026, he raided India 17 times, attacking places like Somnath Temple for wealth. He did not stay to rule but weakened Hindu kingdoms and took away gold and slaves. His raids showed how rich India was and encouraged more invasions.

After Mahmud, the Ghurids from Ghor in Afghanistan rose. Muhammad of Ghor, also called Muizzuddin Muhammad, wanted to conquer and rule, not just loot. He started campaigns in the late 12th century. India at that time had no united front against invaders because kings fought among themselves. The caste system and feudal setup made armies less united. Elephants and infantry were common in Indian forces, while invaders had fast cavalry and archers. This difference helped the Muslims win battles.

Muhammad of Ghor first attacked Multan and Uch in 1175, then moved east. He faced resistance from Rajput kings like Prithviraj Chauhan of Ajmer and Delhi. These early attacks set the stage for the foundation of the Sultanate by showing that permanent rule was possible.

Key Battles Leading to the Foundation

The most important battles were the two Battles of Tarain. In the First Battle of Tarain in 1191, Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Muhammad of Ghor near Delhi. Muhammad was wounded and had to retreat. This victory boosted Rajput pride, but they did not chase the enemy.

Muhammad came back stronger in 1192 for the Second Battle of Tarain. He had a larger army with better tactics. Prithviraj's forces were big but slow. Muhammad used fake retreats to tire the Indians, then attacked with arrows. Prithviraj was captured and killed, according to some stories. This win opened northern India to Muslim rule.

After Tarain, Muhammad conquered Delhi and Ajmer. He left his general Qutb-ud-din Aibak in charge and returned to Ghor. Aibak expanded the territory by defeating other Rajput kings. In 1193, he took Kannauj from Jaichand, another rival of Prithviraj. The Battle of Chandawar against Jaichand was key, as it broke the Gahadavala dynasty.

Muhammad also sent armies to other areas. Bakhtiyar Khilji, another general, conquered Bihar and Bengal around 1200. He destroyed Buddhist centers like Nalanda but set up Muslim rule in the east. These victories showed quick expansion.

Muhammad of Ghor was killed in 1206 by assassins, leaving no strong heir. His generals in India became independent. Aibak, a former slave, took control in Lahore and then Delhi, starting the Sultanate. These battles were not just military wins; they ended Rajput dominance in the north and started a new era.

Role of Qutb-ud-din Aibak in Founding the Sultanate

Qutb-ud-din Aibak was the founder of the Delhi Sultanate. Born a Turkish slave, he rose through skills in war and loyalty to Muhammad of Ghor. After the Second Tarain, he governed from Delhi.

In 1206, after Muhammad's death, Aibak declared himself Sultan. He moved the capital to Delhi, making it the center of power. His rule lasted only four years until 1210, but he laid strong foundations. Aibak crushed rebellions by Rajputs and expanded to Gujarat and Rajasthan.

He built the Qutub Minar in Delhi as a victory tower, started during his time. It showed Islamic architecture mixing with Indian styles. Aibak also made mosques from temple materials, like the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque.

Aibak was kind to people, earning the name Lakh Baksh (giver of lakhs). He helped scholars and built public works. But his sudden death in a polo accident left the throne unstable. His son Aram Shah was weak, leading to a takeover by Iltutmish.

Aibak's role was crucial as he turned conquered lands into a kingdom. He set up administration with Persian influences, using iqta system for land grants to soldiers.

Shamsuddin Iltutmish: Strengthening the Foundation

Iltutmish, Aibak's son-in-law and former slave, became Sultan in 1211 after defeating Aram Shah. He ruled until 1236 and is seen as the real builder of the Sultanate.

Iltutmish faced many challenges. Rival generals like Yildoz and Qubacha claimed power. He defeated them in battles, uniting the territories. In 1221, Mongol invader Genghis Khan reached the Indus, but Iltutmish avoided war by diplomacy.

He got recognition from the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad, making his rule legitimate in Muslim eyes. This helped against rivals.

Iltutmish expanded the empire. He conquered Ranthambore, Mandawar, and parts of Malwa. In the east, he controlled Bengal after rebellions.

He organized administration. Introduced silver tanka and copper jital coins for trade. Set up a group of 40 loyal Turkish nobles called Chahalgani to support him.

Iltutmish built more of the Qutub Minar and tombs. He named his daughter Razia as heir, breaking tradition.

His death in 1236 led to weak successors, but his work made the Sultanate stable. He shifted from slave rule to a monarchy.

Razia Sultana and Early Challenges

Razia became Sultana in 1236, the first woman ruler in Muslim India. She was capable, trained in war and administration by Iltutmish.

Razia ruled like a man, wearing male clothes and leading armies. She crushed rebellions and improved justice.

But nobles opposed her because she was a woman and favored non-Turks like Jamaluddin Yaqut, an Abyssinian.

In 1240, nobles rebelled, captured her, and made her brother Bahram Shah Sultan. Razia married Altunia, a rebel, to fight back but was defeated and killed.

Her short rule showed gender issues in medieval times. It also highlighted Turkish nobles' power, leading to instability.

After Razia, weak rulers like Bahram and Masud followed, with nobles controlling everything. This period saw Mongol threats and internal fights.

Nasiruddin Mahmud and Ghiyasuddin Balban

Nasiruddin Mahmud became Sultan in 1246 with help from Balban, a powerful noble. Nasiruddin was pious and simple, letting Balban handle affairs.

Balban suppressed rebellions and defended against Mongols. In 1266, after Nasiruddin's death, Balban became Sultan.

Balban ruled strictly until 1287. He believed in divine kingship, acting aloof to command respect.

He destroyed the Chahalgani group to centralize power. Built a strong army with espionage to prevent revolts.

Balban conquered rebellious areas like Doab and Bengal. He stopped Mongol advances by fortifying borders.

His harsh policies stabilized the Sultanate but were cruel. After his death, the Slave Dynasty ended with weak heirs.

Transition to Khilji Dynasty

The Slave Dynasty lasted from 1206 to 1290. It founded the Sultanate but faced constant threats.

In 1290, Jalaluddin Khilji, an Afghan, took power, starting the Khilji Dynasty. This shift showed changing ethnic groups in rule.

The foundation period set patterns: central rule from Delhi, mix of Persian and Indian systems, and ongoing expansions.

Impact of the Foundation on Indian Society

The establishment brought Islam as a major force. Mosques, madrasas, and new laws changed society.

Hindus and Muslims interacted, leading to conversions and cultural mix. Persian became court language, influencing Hindi.

Economy grew with new crops and trade routes. But wars caused destruction in some areas.

Rajput resistance continued, but many allied with Sultans for posts.

Military and Administrative Foundations

Early Sultans built armies with cavalry from Central Asia. The iqta system gave lands for military service.

Administration used Persian models: Sultan at top, wazirs for finance, qazis for justice.

Delhi became a grand city with forts and markets.

Cultural Changes During Foundation

Architecture mixed: arches and domes with Indian carvings.

Literature saw Persian histories like those on conquests.

Sufis arrived, spreading Islam peacefully.

Challenges in the Early Years

Rebellions by Hindus and rival Muslims were common.

Mongol threats from north forced strong defenses.

Succession fights weakened rulers.

Legacy of the Foundation

The Delhi Sultanate lasted over 300 years, influencing Mughals.

It united northern India under one rule for the first time in centuries.

Brought new technologies like paper and gunpowder.

In simple terms, the foundation was about conquest, consolidation, and cultural blend, shaping modern India.